Confucius and Mozi, on Ritual

Confucius (Kongzi, 551-479 BCE) sees the practice of ritual as a means of promoting virtue. He sees the sage kings of antiquity as exemplars of virtue, and thus he argues for adherence to the ancient rites and rituals that were practiced under their benevolent rule. He says that he is "A transmitter [of the traditions of antiquity] and not a maker, believing in and loving the ancients" (7.1).¹ 
      He also suggests that to adhere to ritual is to follow the Way and to obey the mandates of Heaven. He says, "There are three things of which the superior man stands in awe. He stands in awe of the ordinances of Heaven. He stands in awe of great men. He stands in awe of the words of the sages" (16.8).² 
      To adhere to traditional rites of mourning is also to be compliant with our moral duty to be respectful toward parents, elders, and ancestors. Confucius says, "Filial piety and respect for elders constitute the roots of Goodness" (1.2).³  Master Zeng says, "All the Master teaches amounts to nothing more than dutifulness tempered by sympathetic understanding" (4.15).⁴ 
      Confucius also says, "The gentleman puts rightness into practice by means of ritual, gives it expression through modesty, and perfects it by being trustworthy" (15.18).⁵ 
      At the same time, he explains that virtue is best acquired by applying the mean (6.29), and that perfect virtue is in accordance with the constant mean (6.27), so this would seem to suggest that there should be some moderation in ritual observances. He says that in festive ceremonies it is better to be sparing than extravagant, and that in ceremonies of mourning, it is better to be truly sorrowful (to feel true sorrow) than to pay attention to minute details (3.4).⁶ Thus, observance of traditional rites and rituals should not amount to a labored busyness or an ostentatious demonstration of piety for the sake of one's being recognized as pious and virtuous.
      Nevertheless, strict observance of ritual is necessary, according to Confucius, and if this observance is truly virtuous, then it will be effortless. "The superior man...does not set his mind either for anything or against anything; what is right he will follow" (4.10).⁷ 
      Adherence to ritual observances by benevolent rulers will also promote virtue among the people whom they govern, says Confucius. "When those who are in high stations perform well all their duties to their relations, the people will be aroused to virtue" (8.2).⁸ 
      Mozi (c. 475-221 BCE) has a much different attitude toward ritual than Confucius, and he is sharply critical of him. Mozi says that universal love was the Way of the ancient sage kings (16.15), and that this is what should be emphasized. It was by means of universal love that the ancient kings brought prosperity to their kingdoms. The more elaborate that rituals and music became, the less well governed were the subsequent kingdoms. Ritual observances and music are not a useful means of promoting righteousness or bringing order to the world, says Mozi. What is necessary is universal mutual love.
      Mozi's criticism of traditional rites and rituals is due in part to what he sees as their practical consequences. They don't lead to a better standard of living for the common people. Excessive expenditure of time and effort on lavish mourning ceremonies by families of limited means may lead to depletion of their emotional and financial resources. Workers may also lose work opportunities by having to observe extended periods of mourning. Even rulers may have their financial resources dangerously depleted by having to observe prolonged and elaborate rituals for the dead. Mozi says that there should be moderation in observance of ritual (25.16), just as there should be moderation in other social customs.
      I would tend to favor Mozi's position. Confucius insists that three years of mourning for the death of one's parents is necessary, and that one year is not long enough (17.21). I agree with Mozi that this seems rather excessive. Confucius also seems to accept traditional rites unquestioningly and without looking at their justifications or practical consequences, seeing them as venerable expressions of the righteousness of the ancient sage kings. But Confucius's desire to return to the past seems to be rather regressive in its moral dimensions. Are ancient rites and rituals always appropriate for contemporary society? Shouldn't they evolve in some manner to meet contemporary social needs? Confucius doesn't fully answer the question of whether change can ever be appropriately instituted in traditional rites and rituals. Rather, he sees the failure to strictly adhere to ritual as indicative of a person's failure to be completely virtuous and to meet the moral standard of a "gentleman" or "superior man."

FOOTNOTES

¹Confucius, Confucian Analects, translated by James Legge (New York: Dover Publications, 1971), p. 195.

²Ibid., p. 313.

³Ibid., p. 139.

⁴Kongzi (Confucius), Analects, translated by Edward G. Slingerland, in Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy, edited by Philip J. Ivanhoe and Bryan W. Van Norden (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 2023), p. 14

⁵Ibid., p. 45.

⁶Confucius, Confucian Analects, translated by James Legge, pp. 155-156.

⁷Ibid., p. 168.

⁸Ibid., p. 208.

OTHER RESOURCES

Mozi, The Mozi: A Complete Translation, translated by Ian Johnston (Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, 2010).